Reflection

I think my head is spinning!!! There was SOOOO much to cover in this unit. Each one could have a separate unit on its own! Some things I would like to reflect upon include the big lab project and the compendium review.

I had a lot of fun with the lab project. If you've taken the time to look through ALL of this information, you will see that I turned mine into a powerpoint video. It really helped me understand different processes and retain information by going through everything more than once. The lab definitely covered everything. Not only the major lab project but the two little labs to go with it.

I felt way too over whelmed with the compendium review. After looking at other people's, I am uncertain if I did it right. I went over everything that I had known or learned and there are some who just did an overview of the chapters to read. I do like how I did mine because, it took me through everything for probably the third or fourth time.

Lastly, this was fun because I discovered I did learn and retain something from all of my high school biology classes. When I first sat down and started going through this, I felt like I wasn't really learning or focusing. Then, I started to realize it was like a review for me, but so much more. Granted, biology is a class that is usually a two semester ordeal and covers everything into depth what we just briefly touched upon in this unit.

The compendium review was the hardest part for me, and my second topic compendium could definitely have been better. Now that I have a general idea as to what I am doing, hopefully the next unit will not be quit so overwhelming.

Looks Normal, Feels Abnormal

An Ethical Issue Essay

Cloning has been around since 1970. A successful, healthy cloned lamb was completed in 1997. Scientist continue, day in and out, to perfect cloning with high hopes of using the technology to help cure diseases. It may sound like a good idea, but the offspring being produced give more of a chilling effect. Right now, there are many different types of cloning, and the battle of viewpoints makes it even more complicated.

The first type is recombinant DNA technology. This is cloning DNA fragments and producing new cells. Right now, bacteria are the most common used host cells for this type of technology. They are working to use this technology to learn about other technologies, such as genetic engineering. It seems as though DNA cloning is the basic building block of learning how to properly clone. Instead of waiting until that was perfected, scientists decided to jump ahead and work on reproductive cloning.

The purpose of reproductive cloning is to make an animal that has the same DNA as another currently existing animal; hence the cloned lamb dolly. This has been the most successful case, so far. Many articles and news stories involved the idea of reproductive cloning. It also led to the knowledge that specialized cells can, and do, change in the body. Some people think that the success of reproductive cloning is a huge step in human knowledge. Others think it is completely unethical. This is understandable. The produced offspring does not seem real. Especially when they are talking about endangered species. Humans are trying to use reproductive cloning to repopulate species we destroyed in the first place. It seems very unnatural because of how these animals are made. It is no longer the story of the ‘birds and bees.’ Not only have we been experimenting with animals, it has now moved up to experimenting with humans.

Therapeutic cloning is producing human embryos for research. To do this, scientists are extracting stem cells from embryos, which ultimately destroy them. It is obvious as to why this is such an unethical act. We are killing unborn babies to make test tube babies. Right now there have been no successful cases further than it dividing into six cells.

Cloning is a very unnatural process. We have completely taking out nature and substituted chemicals. Another thing to consider is when did animals become nothing to use? If we can successfully use reproductive cloning, we can mass produce pigs and work on using their body parts as organ donations. Do we not already mass produce pigs in factory farms? Do we not already religiously practice genetic engineering? Yet we do not know enough about it to be doing this. Many of the offspring created have several health problems and are born abnormally large, which is extremely dangerous for the host. We are experimenting with more and more, but we do not seem to know enough about one type of cloning before it moves on to the next.

GENES!

Introduction: Genes, according to our textbook, are a unit of heredity exisiting as alleles on the chromosomes. This section is going to look at the Punnett square and alleles.

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype is the genes of the individual and Phenotype is the physical characteristics.

Alleles one of two or more alternate forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.

*A quick story. When I was in high school, my biology teach was obsessed with the Human Genome Project. He had a big poster up in his classroom that was only partially complete. Now, it has been completed. It is neat to grow up with something like that.*

To finish up the gene section, here is my lab write up concerning the Punnet Square.

Lab Write Up

Introduction: My mother has blue eyes, straight almost black hair. My father, sister, and brother, all have very very dark, straight hair and brown eyes. I have blue eyes and naturally dirty-blonde curly hair. How did that happen? Either I am adopted (which I wouldn't be surprised) or it had something to do with genetic inheritance. Somewhere along the line, the recessive trait of blue eyes and curly hair became dominant.

Definitions:

Genotype: The actual genes of a person for a particular trait. For example, in the dragon lab, you can see the chromosomes and it highlights the genes found on each.

Phenotype: The physical traits from the genotype. Again, looking at the dragons, you see they have horns, which comes from the dominate trait H.

Allele: Alternative form of the gene. In the “Scenario Five” example you see the Punnett square. In the upper right hand corner you have the genotype of LL. The allele to that would the Ll genotype.

Cross: Breeding to organisms to create an offspring. The Punnett square shows two adult flies and if they were crossed, the square gives an estimate of what their offspring would look like.

Dominant: Referring to alleles; it is the primary trait in the heterozygote, stomping the expression of the recessive trait. For example, the long wings would be the dominate trait in the flies.

Recessive: Again referring to allele; only shows through in a homozygote. In the dragon lab, looking at the traits displayed on the right, you can see that breathing fire is a recessive trait.

What you have just seen are the definitions with some examples pertaining to the pictures above. These are from the online lab. Let's begin with the one with dragons. In this lab, you had to match up the genes to get something that looked completely different to the top dragon to what you see now. To do this, one needs to go through and determine which traits are dominant and which are recessive in the dragon you want it to look like. From there, you change the traits in the bottom one and you end up with twins!

After that, you go into the Punnett square example. This example is to give you an idea as to what potential offspring might look like. You pick two adults. In this case we had two heterozygotes, so I chose the differing alleles (Ll). From there you lay out the traits along the out side of the squares then match them. Three of them will look a like, and the fourth will have a slightly different phenotype.

Conclusions: After going through these labs, it has been determined that I was the kid in the fourth square in the bottom right hand corner. My parents have all of the traits I have, the only problem is they aren't visible on them. This lab gave significant definitions as well as examples from the online simulator.

Cancers

Introduction: Most of us have known or heard of someone who has suffered from cancer. You might have seen the movie “I am Legend” that gave a fictional foreshadow of what might happen if a cure for cancer was found. Unfortunately this is a very real disease. We do have a lot of information on cancers, but not enough.

Characteristics

~Cancer Cells Lack Differentiation

This simply means they do not contribute to the functioning of any body part.

~Have Abnormal Nuclei

The nuclei tends to be enlarged; possibly with an abnormal number of chromosomes.

~Have Unlimited Replicative Potential

Simply put, there is no stopping them from replicating. They will replicate as many times as they want.

~Form Tumors

Cancer cells begin to pile upon each other in multiple layers; that makes a tumor.

~Have No Need For Growth Factors

Chemical signals saying when and when not to divide are pretty much ignored by cancer cells

~Gradually Become Abnormal

~Undergo Angiogenesis and Metastasis

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels.

Metastasis is when a piece of the tumor breaks off and begins to form somewhere else.

There are many types of cancers and if one was to study cancers they would be called an oncologist. There carcinomas, which are cancers of epithelial tissues. Sarcomas are cancers in muscles and connective tissues. Leukemias are cancers of the blood. There is also lymphomas, which are cancers in the lymphatic system.

Conclusion: There you have it. There are a lot of foundations out there working to fight cancer, as well as many people. It is wise to know symptoms and to avoid bad habits to expedite your chances, such as tanning beds and cigarettes.

~Note~ I chose not to include pictures in this portion. I believe that cancer should be treated as a deeply personal event and not propagandized by pictures that people can't help but look at.

Part Two of Lab Project

Introduction: Here is another video containing the second part of the lab project. In this, you will see DNA replication, mitosis, translation, and transcription.

Conclusion: The diagrams may have been a little confusing, but I hope the point got across. Now for a much more serious topic, cancers.

Cell Division

Introduction: Cell division, also known as mitosis, is exactly what it says. It is the dividing of cells into new ones. In order to remember the phased think of I-P-MAT. The best way to explain this is to look at a diagram. Here is one from www.ivy-rose.co.uk.

Here are the parts broken down:

Interphase: During this phase, you will see:

G1à Growth

S à Growth and DNA replication

G2 à Growth and final preparations for division

Then comes Mitosis: During this phase you will see:

Prophase à Nucleolus has disappeared, duplicated chromosomes are visible, and the centromeres begin to move to opposite poles.

(www.fresno.k12.ca.us)

Metaphase à Centromeres of chromosomes line up along the equator and spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids come from the spindle poles.

(www.ivy-rose.co.uk)

Anaphase à Chromatids are pulled apart and move to opposite poles.

(botit.botany.wisc.edu)

Telophase à Daughter cells forming, nuclear envelopes and nucleoli appear, and a cleavage furrow forms.(bomi.ou.edu)

Meiosis is a little different and here is a chart explaining the differences.

(www.ivy-rose.co.uk)

Conclusion: Here is a very brief overview of the process of cell division. It is something, for years, that I have only been able to understand by looking at pictures. If someone made a picture book about mitosis, I would understand it very well. Now it is time for Part Two of the Lab Project. I decided this was a good place to put it because it demonstrates mitosis, translation, and transcription.

Genetic Expression

Introduction: After getting a brief look at the basics concerning DNA and RNA, now it is time to look at transcription and translation. These are the two steps in genetic expression. An important thing to remember is that DNA is transcribed and RNA is translated.

Transcription
“DNA is read to make a mRNA in the nucleus.” Simply, the DNA will open up and an mRNA is made from the DNA template. Remember that RNA is a single strand. So after it is formed, it is separate from the DNA and the DNA will have closed back up.

(This example of transcription came from www.scientificpsychic.com)

Translation

“Reading the mRNA to make a protein in the cytoplasm.” This is not going on in the nucleus. After the mRNA has been made, it travels outside the nucleus to the cytoplasm. It finds a ribosome and they connect, lining up amino acids according to mRNA sequence.

(oak.cats.ohiou.edu is where I found this image of translation.)

The two of these combined make up genetic expression, but it is also controlled. Here is a list of the different ways regulation may take place:

1. Transcriptional Control: Mechanisms in the nucleus regulate which genes are transcribed and/or the rate at which transcription of genes occurs
2. Posttranscriptional Control: Occurs after DNA is transcribed and mRNA is formed. It will determine how mRNA is processed before it leaves the nucleus and also how fast it may leave.
3. Translational Control: This happens in the cytoplasm and it looks over the life expectancy of an mRNA in the cytoplasm.
4. Posttranslational Control: Also happening in the cytoplasm, but occurs after protein synthesis. The mRNA may need to undergo some additional changes.

DNA Technology

The technology surrounding DNA is ever growing. Some things that are happening now include:

Gene Isolation

Gene Cloning

Specific DNA Sequences Cloned

Genetically Engineered Products

Most, if not all, of this technology is shrouded by ethical issues though. Especially when it comes to cloning and genetic engineering. Many people are fearing for their overall health.

Conclusion: After a very brief over view of some key highlights about RNA and DNA, it is now time to look at how cells divide.

DNA and RNA Structure/Function

Introduction: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material and is largely found in the chromosomes. RNA (ribonucleic acid) is made up of nucleotides containing sugar ribose. When these two work together, they build the amino acid sequence in a protein. This section is going to look at them individually.

DNA

Here is the structure of a DNA. As many have heard, or possibly made models of, the DNA is a double helix. This simply means it has two strands that spiral around each other. In the middle of these strands are nucleotides that are bonded by hydrogen bonding. The bonds created are: A with T, and G with C. These are called complimentary paired bases.

This colorful DNA structure image was found at www.biologycorner.com.

The function of DNA is to replicate. Its job is to make an exact replica of itself. The fancy scientific term for this process is called: DNA replication. Here is a brief explanation of how DNA replicates. This is pulled straight from our text book, but I found it to be the simplest and most clear.

1. Before replication starts, the two strands of the original DNA are hydrogen-bonded together.
2. An enzyme unwinds and “unzips” the DNA
3. New complementary DNA nucleotides, which are always in the nucleus, fit into place by the process of complimentary base pairing. These position and are then joined by the enzyme DNA polymerase.
4. To complete replication, an enzyme seals any breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone
5. The two double-helix molecules are identical to each other and the original DNA.

This general overview of DNA replication is from fig.cox.miami.edu.

RNA

Now for an RNA structure. We now know that DNA is made up of the A,T,G, and, C nucleotides. RNA, on the other hand, is made up of C,G,A, an U nucleotides. RNA is also single stranded. There are also three types of RNA. Let’s explore them. (Below is an RNA image from www.jncasr.ac.in)

The first is Ribosomal RNA or rRNA. It is produced in the nucleolus and its main job is to join with proteins made in the cytoplasm to form the subunits of ribosomes.

(This image comes from www.biocrawler.com)

Next up is Messenger RNA or mRNA. This is made in the nucleus, as opposed to the nucleolus. mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

(This image is from http://www.cofc.edu/~deavorj/102/notes/biochem/jpdnucla.html)

Lastly, you will find Transfer RNA or tRNA. This structure is also made in the nucleus. tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes.

(Last but not least is this image from www.kensbiorefs.com)

All of these help form a protein.

Table of Contents: Part Two

Unit One: Topic Two-Genetics
DNA and RNA Structure and Function
~DNA
~RNA
~Genetic Expression
~Transcription/Translation
~DNA Technology

Cell Division

Part Two of Lab Project

Cancers
~Characteristics

Genes
~Genotype and Phenotype
~Lab Write Up

First Part of Lab Project: Build a Cell!

Introduction: Here it is. What you have all been waiting for! MY LAB PROJECT. Well, most of my lab project. I thought this part fit here well and the the second half, concerning DNA and Cell Genetics would go best with the second topic. I hope you enjoy this short film.


Conclusion: There you have it! I hope you enjoyed that little presentation. Now on to Genetics!

Tissues Please!

Introduction: This section is about tissues found in the body. This is not a detailed section.

There are four major types of tissues in the human body. Those consist of : Connective, muscular, nervous, epithelial.

Types of connective tissues found at

http://www.bv229.k12.ks.us/bvnwbiology/biology/handouts/cellular_respiration_overview.jpg

Some muscular tissues from http://www.up.ac.za/academic/medicine/telemed/Hist/018/img/018-001.jpg

Here is nervous tissue from http://www.okc.cc.ok.us/biologylabs/Images/Cells_Membranes/nuero.jpg

Last but not least, epithelial tissue found from http://www.stegen.k12.mo.us/tchrpges/sghs/ksulkowski/images/20_Simple_Columnar_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg

Final Conclusion: Now you have seen it all! You just spent time looking through the basics of science all the way to our basic building blocks. There is a lot of information presented there and it may be overwhelming. One just needs to take it step by step. It eventually all fits together, just as the levels of organization shows. To emphasize some points of the cells, here is a video of the first part of the lab project: Build a Cell.

Cell Action!

Introduction: Welcome to the most exciting part of this topic; all of the metabolic processes in the cell. Here you will see pictures of different types of diffusion. These include: facilitated transport, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Again, definitions are from “Human Biology” by Mader, Sylvia S.

Facilitated Transport: A molecule is transported at a high rate from an area of higher concentration to lower.

Here is a picture from http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/memb/c8x16types-transport.jpg

that shows facilitated, or passive, transport. It also has diffusion and active transport.

Active Transport: A molecule is moving from lower to higher concentration. This needs energy to happen.

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/enger/student/olc/art_quizzes/genbiomedia/0645.jpg

This website shows the active transport of the sodium-potassium pump.

Endocytosis: A portion of the cell membrane takes in substances and forms a pouch. The membrane pinches off to form an endocytic vesicle in side the cell.

Here is a great picture of endocytosis from

http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=4946&rendTypeId=4

Exocystosis: A vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane as secretion happens.

Here is a simple visual of exocytosis from http://www.linkpublishing.com/exocytosis5.jpg

Conclusion: For a little bit more information, diffusion is the random movement of molecules from high to low concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane. Now that we have seen the cell in action, it is time to move on. Remember, back up top, the organization of a bunch of cells make a tissue? Well, we have a talked A BUNCH about cells, so now to tissues.

Cells and Organization

Introduction: Congratulations! You have made it far enough to wander into the CELL! In this section, you are going to see what a eukaryotic cell looks like as well as what each part does.

Definitions (All from “Human Biology” by Mader, Sylvia S.)

Cell: Smallest unit of life.

Eukaryotic Cell: Type of cell that has a membrane bound nucleus and membranous organelles.

Prokaryotic Cell: Type of cell that lacks a membrane-bounded nucleus and organelles.

Here is a labeled eukaryotic cell from http://www.daviddarling.info/images/plant_cell.jpg. It shows how cells are organized. Further down, you will find information on what each part does.

Explanations of the parts of the cell are from “Human Biology” by Mader, Sylvia S.

Plasma (Cell) Membrane: Outer surface that regulates what comes in and out of the cell.

Microtubles: cylinders of protein molecules present in cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and flagella.

Centrosome: microtubule organizing center that play a part in mitosis.

Lysosome: vesicle that digests.

Vesicle: membrane bound sac that stores and transports substances.

Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix that holds everything in the cell.

Nucleus: powerhouse of the cell.

Chormatin: diffuse threads containing DNA and protein

Nucleolus: region that produces subunits of ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough à studded with ribosomes

Smooth à no robosomes, synthesizes lipid molecules

Ribosomes: particles that carry out protein synthesis

Mitochondria: carries out cellular respiration producing ATP molecules

Golgi Apparatus: Processes, packages, and secretes modified cell products.

Conclusion: Well, there you have it! Different parts of the cells, what they do, and a diagram to show you how they are organized. Further on, you will find the first part of the home lab project that will go over this. Next up is cell action.

Carbs, Fats, And Proteins, OH MY!

Introduction: Welcome to the molecules of life. Here are going to take a brief look into carbohydrates, fats (lipids), and proteins. You will also find some structures of each molecule.

Break it Down

The best way to simply break down these molecules is to look at the chart presented in the power point by Dr. Frolich. Here is a remade model with the same information.

MOLECULE	MADE OF	FUNCTION
Carbohydrates	Simple Sugars	Energy
Proteins	Amino Acids	Catalyze Reactions
Fats/Lipids	Fatty Acids	Cell Membranes
DNA/RNA	Nucleotides (bases)	Information

A few tidbits:

*Carbon can form into LONG chains.

*These are four basic things every single cell in our body is made of.

PHOTO SHOOT!
The following are pictures of structures of the different molecules.

Here is a carbohydrate structure from http://www.seachem.com/home/images/carbohydrate_structure.jpg

Here is a lipid structure from http://www.thebestlinks.com/images/4/42/Basic_lipid_structure.png

This is a very basic lipid structure.

Here is a protein structure from http://www.avalosdesign.com/body.JPG

Just kidding! Here is the real one which I found at http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/104/proteinstructure.jpg

This picture is showing the folding of a protein molecule.

Conclusion: Short but sweet. That was a very, very simple description of the molecules of life. You will learn much more about these if you enroll in a nutrition course. Now it is time for…CELLS! As you may know, cells are the basic building blocks of life. Let’s take a look at cells and how they are organized.

Life, As We Know It

Introduction: Welcome to life! In this section, you will have the opportunity to see how life is organized, shared characteristics and the differences between human and ape. An interesting fact found in our textbook is that humans cannot have evolved from apes because we are living on the earth at the same time. Yet we do share a common apelike ancestor.

Definitions (All from “Human Biology” by Mader, Sylvia S.)

Metabolism: All of the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.

Development: Groups of stages where a zygote becomes an organism or an organism changes during its lifespan.

Homeostasis: Maintaining internal conditions.

Evolution: Descent of organisms from common ancestors with adaptations.

What All Living Things Share

Here is a great way page that goes through the seven characteristics of life. It really cannot get simpler than this. http://infohost.nmt.edu/~klathrop/7characterisitcs_of_life.htm

For a quick reference, here is a list:

Living Things:

-Are composed of cells

-Are organized

-Use energy

-Respond to their environment

-Grow and develop

-Reproduce

-Evolve/adapt

Organization

This is best explained by graphics.

Here is a very simple chart from http://infohost.nmt.edu/~klathrop/7characterisitcs_of_life.htm that leaves out the first level of atoms and doesn’t expand much into community, ecosystem, and biosphere.

I find the best way to think of this organization is this: All things are composed of atoms. A bunch of atoms make a molecule. A bunch of molecules make a cell. A bunch of cells make a tissue, so on and so forth until you have a bunch of ecosystems to make a biosphere.

Differences

Some of us (or most of us) may look like apes, but we have a lot of differences. According to our textbook, here are a few differences.

HUMANS	APES
Highly developed brains	Not so highly developed
Stand completely upright	Use front arms and back legs to walk
Creative language	Grunt and make other noises
Ability to use lots of tools	Use sticks and rocks

Conclusion: You have just gone through a very brief introduction to life and our organization. Next we are going to delve a little deeper in the molecules of life. From there we will go into depth about cells.

Microscopy

Introduction: Welcome to the microscope section of the compendium review. You are about to see slides from an online microscope simulator that can be found at www.udel.edu/biology/ketcham/microscope/. There is an excellent tutorial and video clip to get you started. The most commonly used microscope, the compound microscope, is the one that is going to be discussed.

A Brief History

This website www.southwestschools.org/jsfaculty/Microscopes/ind... has a great page where you can see a pictorial evolutionary history of the microscope. Zacharias Janssen is given credit for the first compound microscope. It was as simple thing of a tube with a lens at either end. Many believe it was actually his father who invented it, considering Zacharias’ age at the time. This invention came to being around 1590. From there, Robert Hooke, in 1660, improved it by research and publishing “Micrographia,” coining the word cell. Later, a man with no wealth or formal education, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was known as the best microscope maker for the time period (early 1700s).

Things to Know

Things to know about a compound microscope:

-Most commonly used

-Light illuminated

-2-D image

-View individual cells (even while the cells are still living)

- High magnification and low resolution

-Uses glass slides

-Focuses mechanically

-Uses glass lenses

How Parts Work

Ocular Lens: The piece at the very top that magnifies the image of the specimen formed by the objectives.

Body Tube: Supports the eyepiece and the oculars.

Revolving Nosepiece: Allows one to move the objectives to different magnification powers.

Arm: Supports the body tube.

Objectives: This is the microscope. Objectives are the tiny lenses that produce the image seen through the ocular lens. The powers labeled on the objectives (e.g. 4) are multiplied by ten because that is what the ocular lens is set at. For example, if you were using the 10 objective, you would be seeing the image magnified by 100.

Stage: What holds the slide as well as h

aving an opening where light can come through.

Stage Clips: Holds the slide in place.

Iris: Determines how much light is let through. It works like the iris of your eye, the more light, the wider the opening and vice versa.

Coarse Adjustment Knob: Moves the stage up and down.

Fine Adjustment Knob: Sharply focuses the image.

Light Source: Where the light comes from.

Base: Holds the microscope.

• Here are some pointers from www.udel.edu/biology/ketcham/microscope/. and www.southwestschools.org/jsfaculty/Microscopes/ind... for instructions on how to use the microscope.

Before looking into the microscope

1. After placing the slide on the stage, make sure the lowest objective is in place and the stage is either all the way up or all the way down.

2. To move the slide around, use the XY controls. Be careful, if you are looking through the oculars, the slide may move opposite of the way you are turning the knob.

3. Turn the light on and open the slide to center your specimen.

4. Ensure the iris is closed after slide is centered to avoid blinding yourself when you first look through the oculars

Now look into the microscope

1. Look into the microscope with both eyes open.

2. Adjust the oculars so there is one circle and keep your face a slight distance from the oculars.

3. Depending on if you started with you stage all t

he way down or up will determine which way to move your coarse adjustments. This should also be the only time you use the coarse adjustment. This moves the stage up and down. Move it very slowly until you can see your specimen.

4. You may need to adjust the iris.

5. Once you have found your specimen, use the fine focus knobs to make the image clear.

6. Remember to use the XY controls to move the slide.

7. Place the desired part of the specimen in your field of view before you increase the magnification.

8. Adjust the iris accordingly once further magnified.

9. When you are finished, lower the stage all the way and rem

ove the slide.

Some very important tips

*When carrying a microscope, grasp the arm and use your other hand to support the base.

*Only use lens paper to clean the glass, paper towels and other like items will scratch it! NEVER TOUCH THE LENSES WITH YOUR FINGERS.

*When finished, make sure the base is all the way down and the lowest objective is in place.

Microscope Slides

Now is your chance to see some slides from the online microscope simulator.

This image is while looking through the microscope. What you are looking at is a cheek cell sample at magnified times forty. It may be hard to tell on this picture, but it is in focus with the iris at the right level.

Try as I might, this image did not want to get any bigger. Here you are looking at the same slide, but magnified times 100. In order to get this, I had to adjust the fine focus knob and open the iris a little bit. Again, this picture is (believe it or not) in focus with the correct amount of light.

Last but not least, here is the same cheek cell. Now you are seeing it up close and personal magnified four-hundred times! As the picture is not that large, this one is a little better to see that is is focused. Again, I had to adjust the fine focus and iris, but did not touch the coarse focus. That only happened when working with the 4 objective.

Conclusion: After browsing through this section, you found information on a compound microscope. You saw images, got written directions, as well as a brief history. Now that you hav

e the basics of science under yourbelt, it is time to move on. We are about to work our way up to the workings of a cell. We will begin by discussing the characteristics of life and move on from there. In the next section, you will learn that all life shares the same seven characteristics. You will also see how life is organized.

Science and Scientific Study

Introduction: Welcome to my compendium review of the first major topic about cells. I have broken it down into eight different topics. Within these topics I have also included the first part of the lab project, the parts of the cell and how they work, as well as the online lab. To get started, it is best to go over the basics of biology. We begin with what biology is. From there, you will find information about the scientific method. Lastly, in this topic, will be the different types of scientific studies.

Definitions (All from “Human Biology” by Mader, Sylvia S.)

Biology: Scientific study of life. Human biology is a specialty in biology.

Scientific Theories: An idea that is supported by a broad range of observations, testing, hypotheses, and coming to conclusions.

Scientific Method: Process of learning by making observations, testing hypotheses, and coming to conclusions.

Here is an image from http://lowimpactdevelopment.org/school/images/scimethod2.jpg that is a very simple outline of the scientific method.

There are five important parts of the method. They often vary in terminology, but essentially, all steps are the same. These include:

Observations, which is figuring out the problem.

Hypothesis, making a statement as to what you believe the outcome will be.

Experiment, conduct experiments to prove or disprove your hypothesis.

Observe or Conclude, analyze your results.

Scientific theory, explain your conclusions and determine if your experiments supported your hypothesis.

I want to know why my boyfriend always burns dinner. (Observations)

So my question is, Why can’t my boyfriend cook? (Developed Question)

He can’t cook because he doesn’t know how to follow directions. (Hypothesis)

For my experiment, I will ask him to cook dinner using a cookbook. My other experiment will involve him cooking but me giving him directions. (Experiment)

During the first experiment, my boyfriend read the directions, but chose not to measure anything. The food came out runny and overcooked. The second experiment, I instructed him on how to cook the recipe. He listened to what I said and measured. This time, he became distracted by Facebook and let it cook too long, so it burned. (Observe/Analyze)

After analyzing my evidence, I have concluded that he can’t cook because he becomes easily distracted and has a hard time following written directions. (Conclude)

My experiments supported my hypothesis and then some because it was also noted that he has a short attention span. (Conclude/Scientific Theory

Research

Now let’s take a look at the different types of research used in scientific studies. Here is a chart from the textbook “Nutrition: concepts and Controversies” by Sizer, Frances and Whitney, Ellie that has included important terms often used in a scientific studies.

Type of Research	Description
Blind Experiment	An experiment where the subjects don’t know if they are part of the experimental group or the control group.
Case Studies	Studies of individuals, in a clinical setting where researchers can observe treatments and apparent effects.
Epidemiological Studies	Studies of populations, usually by polling and in the natural environment.
Intervention Studies	Studies of populations in which observation is accompanied by experimental manipulation of some population numbers.
Laboratory Studies	Studies that are performed in tightly controlled situations and are designed to pinpoint causes and effects.
Experimental Group (Definition)	People or animals who receive the actual treatment.
Control Group (Definition)	A group of individuals who are similar in all possible respects to the groups being treated in an experiment but who receive a sham treatment instead of the real one.
Placebo (Definition)	A sham treatment where a harmless medication (or maybe a Tic-Tac) is used on the control group.

Conclusion: After taking time to look through this information, hopefully you have learned the very basics of what goes into a scientific study and different types of research. In some studies, it is necessary to observe a cell. In order to do so, one must use a microscope. In the next section, you will see images from an online microscope simulator. The images are of a cheek smear. The section will also cover microscope basics, some important tips, and how different parts of the microscope work.